Cocaine :: essays research papers

Cocaine is a drug extracted from the leaves of the coca plant. It is a potent brain stimulant and one of the most powerfully addictive drugs. Cocaine is distributed on the street in two main forms: cocaine hydrochloride is a white crystalline powder that can be snorted or dissolved in water and injected; and "crack" is cocaine hydrochloride that has been processed with ammonia or sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) and water into a freebase cocaine. These chips, chunks, or rocks can be smoked. Cocaine may be used occasionally, daily, or in a variety of compulsive, repeated-use "binges". Regardless of how it is used, cocaine is highly addictive. Crack cocaine and injected cocaine reach the brain quickly and bring an intense and immediate high. Snorted cocaine produces a high more slowly. Cocaine can produce a surge in energy, a feeling of intense pleasure, and increased confidence. The effects of powder cocaine last about 20 minutes, while the effects of "crack" last about 12 minutes. Heavy use of cocaine may produce hallucinations, paranoia, aggression, insomnia, and depression. Cocaine's effects are short lived, and once the drug leaves the brain, the user experiences a "coke crash" that includes depression, irritability, and fatigue. Many people ask is cocaine addictive? Yes. Cocaine can take over your life and cause you to lose interest in everything else. Studies in monkeys have shown that animals will work very hard (press a bar over 10,000 times) for a single injection of cocaine, choose cocaine over food and water, and take cocaine even when this behavior is punished. Animals must have their access to cocaine limited in order not to take toxic or even lethal doses. People addicted to cocaine behave similarly. They will go to great lengths to get cocaine and continue to take it even when it hurts their school or job performance and their relationships with loved ones. Do users develop a tolerance to crack or cocaine? Yes. Users may find they need more and more of the drug to get high. What are the effects of cocaine use? Cocaine stimulates the central nervous system. It acts on the "pleasure centers" of the brain, producing heightened pleasure and increased confidence. Other immediate effects include dilated pupils and elevated blood pressure, heart rate, respiratory rate, and body temperature. The pleasurable effects of powder cocaine last about 20 minutes. Occasional use can cause a stuffy or runny nose, and chronic use can ulcerate the mucous membrane of the nose. Injecting cocaine with contaminated equipment can cause AIDS, hepatitis, and other diseases. Preparation of freebase cocaine, which involves the use of volatile solvents, can result in death or injury from fire or explosion.

A study of the Bhopal Gas Tragedy Essay

1) We could firstly look at the arguments that would justify a company in putting its first loyalty and moral responsibility to its owners as a priority. One of those arguments is the shareholder theory, which states that â€Å"the primary responsibility of a firm is to maximise the wealth of its shareholders† (Friedman, 1962). As Friedman (1970 in Moore 1999) then proceeded to argue, he claimed that society would gain as a whole if businesses were left to do what they do best, create wealth. This argument could also be strengthened by considering the principle of egoism. Egoism, as defined by Baier (1990), expounds that an action is rational if and only if it maximizes one’s self-interest. In contemplating the supporting propositions for a company to owe its first loyalty and moral responsibility to its employees and local community who are affected by its operations, we first examine the corresponding view on shareholder theory which is the stakeholder theory where â€Å"the stakeholder framework places shareholders amongst the multiple stakeholder groups that managers must involve in their decision-making process† (Clarkson, 1995; Donaldson and Preston, 1995) where stakeholder groups would include internal, external and environmental constituents who can place demands on the firm (Ruf et al., 2001). A moral theory that could support this view is the ethical theory of W.D. Ross in which he dictates 7 prima facie duties that each person may bear at any one time. In this case, a company has a duty of fidelity to its owners to act in their interest as well as the duty of nonmaleficence to its employees and the local community. In deciding which duty is more important we can turn to Kantian Ethics and the ethic of care. The second reformulation of the categorical imperative says that we should â€Å"(a)ct in such a way that you treat humanity†¦always..as an end and never simply as a means† (Thomas, 2010). Following that, the duty of fidelity will lose priority to the other as the former may require the company to treat humans as a means to an end. Finally, the ethic of care asks that we care for the well-being of those who are dependent on us (Shaw, Barry, Sansbury, 2009). Therefore, a company should owe its first loyalty and moral responsibility to its employees and the local community who are affected by its operations as they are dependent on the company for their safety. 2) The first reformulation of the categorical imperative in Kantian Ethics conveys the idea of treating others how one would want to be treated by others (Thomas, 2010). By natural logic, this entails the concept of all humans being equal and by that extension the differing economic circumstances of an Indian worker should not be sufficient ground to award a lower compensation. 3) Union Carbide USA may have stated their legal rights as a moral justification to use the forum non conveniens. They may also have utilised the concept of egoism as another justification, in that having the case judged in India would be beneficial to themselves. Reference List Baier, K. (1991), A Companion to Ethics, Blackwell Reference, Oxford Clarkson, M. (1995), ‘A stakeholder framework for analyzing and evaluating corporate social performance’, Academy of Management Review, vol.20, no.1, pp.92-117 Dierksmeier, C. (2013), ‘Kant on Virtue’, Journal of Business Ethics, vol.113, no.4, pp597-609 Donaldson, T., Preston, L.E. (1995), ‘The stakeholder theory of the corporation: concepts, evidence, and implications’, Academy of Management Review, vol.20, no.1, pp.65-91 Friedman, M. (1962), Capitalism and Freedom, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL Kant, I. (1966) The Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysics of Ethics, trans. O. Manthey-Zorn, Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York Moore, G. (1999), ‘Tinged shareholder theory: or what’s so special about stakeholders?’, Business Ethics: A European Review, vol.8, no.2, pp117-127 Ruf, B.M., Muralidhar, K., Brown, R.M., Janney, J.J., Paul, K. (2001), ‘An empirical investigation of the relationship between change in corporate social performance and financial performance: a stakeholder theory perspective’, Journal of Business Ethics, vol.32, no.2, pp.143-56 Thomas,  L.C. (2010), Lying and Deception : Theory and Practice, Oxford University Press, Oxford Shaw, W.H., Barry, V., Sansbury, G. (2009), Moral Issues In Business, Cengage Learning Australia

Why are some countries in debt?

Why are some countries in debt? What impact does it have on development? What is debt? On an international scale, debt is the owing of money from one country to another or an international organisation as a result of previous borrowing because of need. Why are some countries in debt? Countries can be in debt for different reasons: 1) Trade deficit When a country's imports are worth more than a country's exports, the country loses money and therefore it is forced to borrow money from other countries or international organisations to try and cover the losses. 2) Natural disasters and tied aid After a natural disaster, a country may become dependent on the aid of another country for a short period of time. However sometimes the aid given is tied aid where the country receiving aid may have to pay back the money given (possibly with interest). They are therefore in debt to the donor country/organisation. 3) Money mismanagement If a country mismanages their use of money (most likely through the government) and spends money unnecessarily while taking out loans to cover the cost, the country can end up in debt. The effect of debt on development When a country is in debt, a majority of the money it generates is used to pay back money to the donor country. This means that there is little money being invested into the social infrastructure of the country, so healthcare and education levels remain the same or get worse overall slowing down or sometimes even reverse developing a country as literacy rates may fall and not enough money could be invested in improving healthcare. Ways of solving debt problems Cancelling debt – What are the advantages and disadvantages? Advantages – The advantages of cancelling debt are that it can allow a poor country to start investing the money it gains into its development/ social infrastructure rather than paying back debt to developed countries. This can overall help to fight poverty and reduce the development gap. In 2005, Zambia had $4 million of debt cancelled and in 2006 it had enough money to pay for free healthcare for millions of people living in rural areas, improving the quality of life. In Tanzania, money saved from debt cancellations allowed the government to abolish primary school fees in 2001. As a result, the number of students that go to primary school doubled. These examples show that by cancelling debt, it allows money to be invested in education which can lead to more people getting jobs, overall contributing to a country's economy, improving the GDP and by investing in healthcare, the life expectancy and infant mortality rate can also decrease. Summary: -a country can invest in its development -It reduces poverty and can reduce the development gap -examples include Zambia and Tanzania Disadvantages – Although cancelling debt can help a country to develop, there are also some disadvantages. Firstly, the donor country loses a significant amount of money which can slightly damage its economy. Developing countries which have had their debt cancelled could start taking out more loans, in the hope of having debt gained from that cancelled as well (This however is unlikely as eventually developed countries will eventually see when a country is not worth giving money to and in a time of crisis, nothing will be given) When a loan is taken, the money should be returned and if it is not, it could give the country which did not pay back, a bad reputation. Summary: – The donor country loses money – Countries could take out more loans – A loan should be paid back if taken in the first place Debt for nature swaps Deforestation largely takes place for economical needs of a country to try and pay off debt. A debt for nature swap is an agreement between a developing nation in debt and one or more of its creditors. In a debt for nature swap, the country or organisation owed money, writes off an amount of debt in return for a certain amount of environmental protection. They were first established in the 1980s in the attempt of solving two problems with one agreement: 1) to minimize the debt of developing nations and 2) to minimize the environmental destruction that frequently takes place in developing countries. A company called WWF (world wide fund for nature) which cooperates with countries such as UK and USA has helped to structure and design many debt for nature swaps. In 2008 they helped to structure and facilitate one of the largest debt for nature swaps in Madagascar's history in which 20 million dollars was committed to preserve the country's rich biodiversity. Also in 2008, the USA reduced Peru's debt by $25 million in exchange for conserving its rainforests. Debt for nature swaps are extremely beneficial because they not only cancel the debt of a country allowing them to invest in development, but it helps to protect the environment and conserve some of the world's rainforests. This makes it better than just cancelling debt.

Cyber Crime & internet

The full realization of the potential benefits brought by internet in the global community is greatly sabotaged by cyber crime activities. Cyber crime is increasingly becoming a major concern across the social, scientific, economic, and law enforcement fronts of the global community. Although the actual economic impact of cyber crimes is hard to qualify, it is estimated that the American nation looses over $100 million on internet related crimes every year. There are numerous types of cyber crimes (Laser, 2009).These includes; identity theft, fraud, hacking, cyber terrorism, malicious computer programs, web posting of offensive materials, and drug trafficking among others. Due to the negative social and economic impact of cyber crime activities, governments and other stakeholders have engaged in a number of prevention measures. They encompass creation of public awareness to enable internet users to identify, report, and/or avoid being victims of such crimes (McDowell, 2008). Software scientists have also engaged in developing effective computer and network security software.In addition to this, there are laws such as the Intellectual Property Law, Electronic Communication Privacy Law, and the 2001 Patriotic Act serve an important role in detecting and prosecuting cyber crime offenders. This essay seeks to discuss malicious computer programs (also know as malware) as a form of cyber crime, its characteristics and how it is prevented, detected, and/or prosecuted. Malicious computer programs are defined as coded programs, which serve either to corrupt the effective functioning of a computer system or lead to unwarranted remote accessing of information from a computer network (Loader, Douglas, & Thomas, 2000).Viruses and worms are the most common types of malicious computer programs or software. Other malicious computer programs include spyware, and Trojan. They are codes which serve to compromise information stored in computer network devices. This type of malicio us computer programs is commonly associated with infecting executable computer files and denial of network access by authorized users (Loader, Douglas, Thomas, 2000). Indeed, through extensive infecting of computer files, such codes are responsible for crashing of computer network devices.Other common forms of malicious computer programs are deceptive Trojan horses, multi-purpose bots, and spyware programs. This is increasingly becoming a common cyber crime. Such programs are characterized by their ability to allow for the stealing of sensitive information from protected networks (Metropolitan Police, 2009). According to available information on these malicious computer programs, they can serve to aid a hacker in remotely accessing passwords and credit card details of network users without detection.In addition, due to their sophisticated capability, such programs are employed for facilitating corrupting of confidential information stored institutional networks (Loader, Douglas, & T homas, 2000). Such can also be used by terrorist groups to qualify the crucial information from their target government prior to attacks. There are numerous ways established for preventing malicious computer programs as a cyber crime activity. The most common measure is the creation of awareness among the general public and institutions on how to identify and mitigate being affected malicious computer programs (McDowell, 2008).To realize this preventive measure, network software scientists have engaged in numerous researches; developing highly intelligent network security software. Indeed, some software such as antivirus are commonly found free in the internet. Such are serving the crucial purpose of mitigating infection of computer networks by malicious computer codes such as virus and worm among others. Still, this intelligent network security software brings with them the ability to identify and deny access of systems by unauthorized users (Lasar, 2009).According to available res earch findings on the effectives of malicious computer programs, it is clearly established that some forms of these programs which are hard to control. In a move to protect the integrity of information technology in the society, it is a common practice for highly sensitive institutions to close down their networks upon realizing any errant behaviors. It is worth noting that such moves are instrumental in ensuring the continued illegal access of networks by hackers. This is usually followed by a change of the overall access security codes and other check requirements.Indeed, for security codes of highly sensitive institutional networks, constant changing is recommended to reduce access chances by hackers. The process of detecting and prosecuting cyber crimes is quite complex. This has been closely attributed to the fact that offenders in these crimes employ high sophisticated technologies (Metropolitan Police, 2009). It is commonly claimed that thieves are usually ahead of technology . Another problem compromising the process of detecting and prosecuting malicious computer programs crime offenders is low rates of reporting such crimes by the victims (McDowell, 2008).Such have also been associated by the failure of network company providers to cooperate with the law enforcement in identifying such incidences. Despite these drawbacks, the war on malicious computer programs as a cyber crime activity has employed a number of methods. First is the use of computer forensic investigation practices to qualify evidence of suspect malicious computer program offender (Lasar, 2009). This process involves technological analysis of collected data by forensic computer scientists.It is to be underscored that according to existing laws such as the Intellectual Property Law and Electronic Communication Privacy Law provides for legal suits against the programmers and distributors of malicious computer programs (Loader, Douglas, Thomas, 2000). Another commonly used measure in detec ting cyber crimes is the tapping of communication networks by law enforcement agents. Although this method has received heavy critics for interfering with the privacy and confidentiality of communication, it serves great purpose in mitigating unwarranted access of sensitive networks.The Patriotic Act of 2001, which allows for government surveillance of the internet, is aimed at mitigating terrorist activities. According to the provisions of the Act, law enforcement is given legal authority to intercept internet communications by crime suspects. Another crucial provision of the Act is its mandatory dictate for network providers to cooperate with the law enforcement in identifying the original of a given communication of malicious programs. Based on this reason, the process of detecting malicious computer programs has significantly improved with the enforcement of the Patriotic Act.Another measure of detecting cyber crime activities is the modern streamlining of the reporting and resp onsiveness practices in the law enforcement (McDowell, 2008). This encourages institutions and individual victims of malicious computer programs to report such incidences, thus enhancing the process of mitigating such criminal activities by the law enforcement agencies. In conclusion, the escalating problem of cyber crime activities is increasingly compromising the realization of the potential benefits brought internet technological advancements in the community.Although all cyber crimes have negative social and economic impacts in the society, malicious computer programs are a real threat to the security of nations across the global. Such programs are evidently blamed for corrupting executable computer network file, crashing of network devices, denying access by authorized users, and allowing access of private information by hackers. Therefore, there is need for more consulted efforts by the computer security software scientists, law enforcement, and other stakeholders to engage in formulating effective measures of fighting cyber crime. References Lasar, M. (2009).An introduction to the FBI’s anti-cyber crime network. Retrieved May 28, 2010, from http://arstechnica. com/web/news/2009/11/an-introduction-to-the-fbis-anti-cybercrime-network. ars Loader, B. , Douglas, T. , & Thomas, D. (2000). Cyber crime: Law Enforcement, Security, and Surveillance in the Information. New York: Routledge. McDowell, M. (2008). National Cyber Alert System. Retrieved May 28, 2010, from http://www. us-cert. gov/cas/tips/ST05-006. html Metropolitan Police. (2009). Trojan’ computer arrests. Retrieved May 28, 2010, from http://cms. met. police. uk/news/arrests_and_charges/trojan_computer_virus_arrests

Lecture on Race Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Lecture on Race - Essay Example However, in the Revisionist School of Thought during the 1950s and 1960s, these teachers were considered protagonists - heroes actually, who were active in fighting for education and for the right to vote. One of the early demands of the freed slaves after the war was the right to education. This was heard by the Northern commanders occupying the South - and this led to the Port Royal Experiment. Furthermore, one of these Freedmen teachers, Mary Peake put up a school in 1861 in Virginia. 2. What was the Supreme Court Decision concerning segregation in the case, Plessy V. Ferguson. What was the Supreme Court Decision concerning segregation in the case, Brown V. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas. The Supreme Court, accordingly after the Civil War, ruled in favor of the segregation policy in the South, where public places were segregated into different areas for blacks and whites. The rule being followed was "separate but equal" doctrine. In Plessy V. Ferguson, the Supreme Court ruled that Homer Plessy, who was colored yet by blood lineage, more white than black, was fallacious in his thinking by refusing to ride a train coach for colored people in Louisiana because in his view it rendered black people inferior. In its decision, the Supreme Court ruled implicitly that inferiority is a matter of feeling or point of view - "it is not by reason of anything found in the act, but solely because the colored race chooses to put the construction upon it". In Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, the Supreme Court, on the other hand ruled against the segregation policy, when it said that segregation had no place in public education - "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal". The case arose as black children challenged the decision of the Topeka Board that put up separate facilities for black and white children. 3. What was the difference in their view of native Americans between men authors and women diarists Men and women authors differed when it came to the portrayal of native Americans. Men authors, who were white, were coming from a point of view on which American Indians were the enemies and white men who searched and fought for settlement areas in the West, were the heroes. Their source of information was their experience as white men and those of others who were also like them, white men. They of course emphasized that part of history when men had to conquer the lands, and in that way gave focus to the danger and treachery posed by the native Americans who were the enemies and of the heroic adventures of the settlers. This point of view became the basis for the hostile policy against native Americans. Women authors on the other hand, saw behind the wagon train tales of hostile action and adventure. American Indians, according to the diaries and recollection of women were recorded as friendly and of service. It was as not much of the danger posed by the native American that the women authors spoke of - but of other difficulties such as disease, drowning and death in the move towards the West. Moreover, the women authors portrayed men who were their husbands as not necessarily good hunters or providers. They humanized their men,

Strategic Financial Management Master Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Strategic Financial Management Master - Essay Example Another school of thought believes that dividends are adverse for the average shareholder as they attract taxes and cause fiscal disadvantages. Last but not the least the third group lauds large dividends as positive signal to shareholders that all is well. So where does the modern shareholder satisfaction stand in relation to dividend policies This is the main issue which I will review in my paper below. This question relates to a consideration of the corporate dividend policy as to whether shareholders should be paid sufficient dividends or whether or not they are making sizeable profits on the stock market. Over the last half century academics have spoken in great depth over this issue and suggested conflicting theoretical frameworks to explain their points of view.(Frankfurter 2002).The problem is that these assertions often lack empirical depth to the criticism and stumble upon self contradictions in an attempt to explain corporate dividend behaviour.(Frankfurter 2002).Today academic opinion is divided as to whether dividends are attractive to shareholders and will have a positive impact in stock prices.(Frankfurter 2002 )Another school of thought contends that prices are negatively correlated with dividend payout levels.(Frankfurter 2002).The third view is that firm dividend policy is irrelevant in stock price valuation. (Frankfurter 2002).My paper will discuss and try to recon cile all these views towards a better theory and understanding of this issue. These views are best summed up as being based upon, the tax effect ( Litzenberger and Ramaswamy (1980),)Clientele effects explanations (Elton and Gruber, 1970), Agency theory explanations(Easterbrook 1984), Signalling models(John and Williams (1985), and psychological/sociological explanations (Frankfurter and Lane 1992). Frankfurter and Wood (2002) have even gone ahead to suggest that none of the dividend theories are unequivocally verified. Academics and theorists like (Adam Smith 1937) have recognised that there will always be agency costs related to taking care of shareholder priorities and controlling unruly management staff.(Corporate Governance issues). 2- Definitions and views from academics Dividend policy has a large bearing on agency costs and many academics have recognised this (Fama and Fama) but their belief that payments of large dividends would potentially compensate for the shareholders are often ignored during decision making in a company according to John and Kalay 1982 "Debt covenants to minimize dividend payments are necessary to prevent bondholder wealth transfers to shareholders .Although potentially substantial in precipitation of agency costs, its dividend policy is not a major source of bondholder wealth expropriation. In firms where dividend payouts are limited by bondholder covenants, dividend payout levels are still below the maximum level allowed by the constraints" (Frankfurter

Civil War Amendments to the Constitution Research Proposal

Civil War Amendments to the Constitution - Research Proposal Example This feat is hardly attained by many constitutions across the globe. This paper expounds on the Civil War Amendments to the constitution. According to Bond (1997: 14), Civil War Amendments were made to address the welfare of African Americans in the United States. In particular, the amendments addressed the civil rights of African Americans and they marked the first attempts to accord equal rights to all American citizens, irrespective of their color, race and political affiliations. The Civil War Amendments to the constitutions are contained in the Thirteenth, Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments (Bond, 1997:35). The Thirteenth amendment that was ratified shortly after the Confederates surrendered in Virginia legally abolished slavery, which had been practiced in the country for long periods, and it was one of the major points of contention in the civil war. According to, Hoemann (1987: 37) the Thirteenth Amendment was the culmination of the Emancipation Proclamation that had earlier been drafted to bequeath African Americans the freedom from enslavement. It was approved in the Congress on January 31 in 1865 and it was ratified eight months later in December 6 of the same year. This amendment consists of two sections (Maltz, 1990,:45).